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Question: Provide a comprehensive introduction to the key figures in classical Chinese philosophy and history from the Pre-Qin to Han periods, specifically Confucius (study The Analects for ethical teachings and aphoristic style), Mencius (explore human nature, benevolence, and political philosophy), Zhuangzi (famous for Daoist parables, relativism, and imaginative allegories), and Sima Qian (author of Records of the Grand Historian, praised as “the historian’s greatest work, an unrhymed Li Sao”).

Answer:

The Pre-Qin (before 221 BCE) to Han (206 BCE–220 CE) era marks the foundational period of Chinese philosophy and historiography. This time, spanning the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods through the early imperial unification under Qin and consolidation in Han, saw the emergence of major schools amid political chaos and intellectual flourishing (the “Hundred Schools of Thought”). Confucianism, Daoism, and historical writing took shape, influencing Chinese thought for millennia.

1. Confucius (孔子, 551–479 BCE)

Confucius, born Kong Qiu, was a teacher and thinker whose ideas form the core of Confucianism. He lived during the declining Zhou dynasty, traveling between states to advise rulers on moral governance but finding little success. His teachings were compiled posthumously by disciples into The Analects (Lunyu 论语), a collection of brief sayings, dialogues, and anecdotes in an aphoristic style—concise, memorable, and often paradoxical.

Key themes include ethical self-cultivation, social harmony, and virtuous leadership. Central virtues are:

Confucius emphasized education for all, moral example over coercion in governance (“Guide them by virtue and keep them in line with rites”), and the ruler’s role in fostering a harmonious society. The Analects portrays Confucius as humble, reflective, and committed to the “Way” (dao 道) of ancient sages like the Duke of Zhou. His influence peaked in the Han dynasty when Confucianism became state orthodoxy.

2. Mencius (孟子, c. 372–289 BCE)

Mencius (Mengzi), a major Confucian successor, expanded Confucius’s ideas during the Warring States period. His book, Mencius (Mengzi), records dialogues with rulers and debates with rivals like Mohists.

Mencius is famous for arguing that human nature is good (xing ben shan 人性本善). He claimed humans possess innate “sprouts” or beginnings of virtue:

These can grow through cultivation or wither if neglected. Evil arises from external factors like poverty or bad environment, not innate nature.

He stressed benevolence (ren) and righteousness (yi) in politics, advocating benevolent government (ren zheng 仁政): rulers should reduce taxes, ensure livelihood, and care for people like parents for children. He introduced the Mandate of Heaven (tianming 天命): rulers lose legitimacy if tyrannical, justifying revolution against unjust rule (e.g., overthrow of bad kings like Jie or Zhou).

Mencius critiqued profit-driven policies, prioritizing moral rightness. His populist view influenced later Confucian political thought, contrasting with Xunzi’s more pessimistic view of human nature.

3. Zhuangzi (庄子, c. 369–286 BCE)

Zhuangzi (Zhuang Zhou), a key Daoist thinker, authored the Zhuangzi (or Chuang Tzu), a text blending philosophy, humor, and fantasy. The “Inner Chapters” (chapters 1–7) are most authentically his.

Zhuangzi used imaginative parables, allegories, and absurd stories to challenge rigid distinctions and promote freedom. Famous examples:

He advocated relativism: perspectives (shi-fei 是非, this/not-that) are indexical and limited—no absolute standard exists. True knowledge transcends language and fixed judgments, embracing the natural dao (Way).

Zhuangzi emphasized spontaneity (ziran 自然), skillful action without effort (e.g., butchers or swimmers flowing with nature), and acceptance of change, including death. He critiqued Confucian social norms as artificial constraints, favoring carefree wandering and alignment with the cosmos.

His witty, poetic style contrasts with Confucian earnestness, influencing Daoism and later Chan/Zen Buddhism.

4. Sima Qian (司马迁, c. 145–86 BCE)

Sima Qian, the “Grand Historian,” authored Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji 史记), the first comprehensive Chinese history. Begun by his father Sima Tan, it covers ~2,500 years from the legendary Yellow Emperor to Emperor Wu of Han.

Structured innovatively:

Praised as “the historian’s greatest work, an unrhymed Li Sao” (referring to Qu Yuan’s poetic lament), it blends factual reporting, vivid narratives, and moral judgment. Sima Qian aimed for objectivity, using multiple sources and personal travels.

Despite personal tragedy (castration for defending a general), he completed it, establishing the biographical-annalistic model for later dynastic histories. The Shiji shaped Chinese historical writing and identity.

These figures represent core strands—Confucian ethics/politics, Daoist naturalism, and objective historiography—that defined classical Chinese thought.

References:

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