Physics

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Below is a concise, 100-point summary of key ideas and concepts typically covered in high school physics. Each point highlights an essential topic, principle, or term relevant to foundational physics studies.

Physics: The study of matter, energy, and the fundamental forces governing the universe.
Units of Measurement: Commonly use SI units (meter, kilogram, second, kelvin, ampere, etc.).
Scalars and Vectors: Scalars have magnitude only (e.g., speed, mass), while vectors have both magnitude and direction (e.g., velocity, force).
Distance vs. Displacement: Distance is the total path length traveled; displacement is the straight-line change in position.
Speed vs. Velocity: Speed is distance per unit time; velocity is displacement per unit time (vector).
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity; can be positive (speeding up) or negative (slowing down).
Uniform Motion: Constant velocity (zero acceleration).
Uniformly Accelerated Motion: Constant acceleration (e.g., free fall under gravity near Earth’s surface).
Kinematic Equations: Describe motion with constant acceleration (e.g., $ v = v_0 + at $, $ s = v_0t + \frac{1}{2}at^2 $).
Free Fall: Motion under gravitational acceleration alone, typically $ g \approx 9.8\,\text{m/s}^2 $ near Earth’s surface.
Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion continues in motion unless acted on by a net external force.
Newton’s Second Law: $ F = ma $, where force equals mass times acceleration.
Newton’s Third Law: Every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force.
Mass vs. Weight: Mass is the amount of matter (in kg); weight is the gravitational force on that mass (in Newtons).
Friction: A force opposing motion between surfaces in contact; can be static (no sliding) or kinetic (sliding).
Normal Force: The force exerted by a surface perpendicular to an object in contact with it.
Tension: The pulling force transmitted along a string, rope, or cable.
Air Resistance (Drag): A force that opposes motion of objects moving through the air.
Free-Body Diagrams: Visual representations of all forces acting on a single object.
Center of Mass: A point representing the average position of mass in a system.
Momentum: $ p = mv $; a vector quantity that describes the motion of an object (mass × velocity).
Impulse: Change in momentum; $ J = \Delta p = F \times \Delta t $.
Conservation of Momentum: Total momentum of a closed system remains constant unless acted upon by external forces.
Collisions:
- Elastic: Total kinetic energy is conserved.
- Inelastic: Objects may stick together; kinetic energy not fully conserved.
Work: $ W = F \, d \, \cos(\theta) $; the transfer of energy when a force moves an object.
Energy: The capacity to do work; measured in Joules (J).
Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion ($ \frac{1}{2}mv^2 $).
Potential Energy: Stored energy due to position or configuration (gravitational, elastic, etc.).
Gravitational Potential Energy: $ U_g = mgh $ near Earth’s surface.
Elastic Potential Energy: Stored in stretched or compressed springs; $ U_e = \frac{1}{2}kx^2 $.
Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed or transferred.
Power: Rate of doing work ($ P = \frac{W}{t} $) or rate of energy transfer; measured in Watts (W).
Efficiency: $ \text{Efficiency} = \frac{\text{useful energy out}}{\text{total energy in}} \times 100\% $.
Mechanical Advantage: Ratio of output force to input force in simple machines (lever, pulley, etc.).
Simple Machines: Devices that change the magnitude or direction of force (inclined plane, lever, wheel and axle, pulley, wedge, screw).
Circular Motion: Motion in a circle at constant speed has acceleration directed toward the center (centripetal acceleration).
Centripetal Force: Net force required for uniform circular motion, $ F_c = \frac{mv^2}{r} $.
Rotation vs. Revolution: Rotation is spinning about an internal axis; revolution is orbiting around an external axis.
Torque: Rotational equivalent of force; $ \tau = r \, F \, \sin(\theta) $.
Center of Gravity: The point at which an object’s weight is equally distributed in all directions.
Rotational Inertia: Resistance of an object to changes in its rotational motion.
Angular Momentum: $ L = I \omega $; conserved unless acted on by external torque.
Gravitation: Attractive force between masses, described by Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
Orbital Motion: Projectiles in free fall around a massive body (planets orbiting the Sun, satellites orbiting Earth).
Escape Velocity: Minimum speed needed to escape a gravitational field without further propulsion.
Fluid: A substance that can flow and take the shape of its container (liquids, gases).
Density: Mass per unit volume ($ \rho = \frac{m}{V} $).
Buoyant Force: Upward force on an object immersed in fluid (Archimedes’ principle).
Pressure: Force per unit area ($ P = \frac{F}{A} $); measured in Pascals (Pa).
Pascal’s Principle: Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally throughout the fluid.
Bernoulli’s Principle: In a fluid flow, increased velocity leads to decreased pressure.
Thermal Energy: Total kinetic energy of particles in a substance.
Temperature: Average kinetic energy of particles; measured in °C, K, or °F.
Heat (Q): Thermal energy transferred due to temperature difference.
Conduction: Heat transfer through direct contact of particles (solids).
Convection: Heat transfer by fluid movement (liquids and gases).
Radiation: Heat transfer via electromagnetic waves (no medium needed).
Specific Heat Capacity: Energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 °C.
Thermodynamics: Study of heat, work, and energy transformations.
First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of energy in thermal processes ($ \Delta U = Q - W $).
Second Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy of an isolated system tends to increase; heat flows from hot to cold spontaneously.
Phase Changes: Changes between solid, liquid, gas (melting, freezing, evaporation, condensation, sublimation, deposition).
Latent Heat: Energy required for a phase change without temperature change.
Waves: Disturbances that transfer energy through space or a medium.
Transverse vs. Longitudinal Waves: Particles move perpendicular to wave direction (transverse) or parallel (longitudinal).
Wave Properties: Amplitude, wavelength, frequency, speed ($ v = f \lambda $).
Reflection: Bouncing of a wave off a surface.
Refraction: Bending of a wave passing from one medium to another due to speed change.
Diffraction: Spreading of waves around obstacles or through openings.
Interference: When waves superimpose, they can reinforce or cancel each other (constructive or destructive).
Sound Waves: Longitudinal waves traveling through a medium; pitch depends on frequency, loudness on amplitude.
Doppler Effect: Apparent change in frequency due to relative motion of source or observer.
Electromagnetic Waves: Transverse waves that do not require a medium (light, radio, X-rays, etc.).
Electromagnetic Spectrum: Range of EM waves by frequency/wavelength (radio → microwave → infrared → visible → UV → X-ray → gamma).
Light: Visible portion of the EM spectrum; exhibits wave and particle properties.
Reflection (Light): Law of reflection states the angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
Refraction (Light): Light bends entering a medium of different optical density; described by Snell’s law.
Lenses: Converging (convex) or diverging (concave) surfaces bend light; used in glasses, cameras, microscopes.
Mirrors: Reflecting surfaces (plane, concave, convex) redirect light rays.
Dispersion: Separation of white light into colors by refraction (prism, rainbows).
Electric Charge: Positive or negative property of matter; like charges repel, opposite charges attract.
Static Electricity: Accumulation of charges on surfaces; discharge can cause sparks.
Electric Current: Flow of electric charge (electrons) through a conductor; measured in Amperes (A).
Voltage (Potential Difference): The “push” that drives current, measured in Volts (V).
Resistance: Opposition to current flow in a conductor; measured in Ohms (Ω).
Ohm’s Law: $ V = IR $; voltage = current × resistance.
Electric Power: $ P = IV $; measured in Watts (W).
Circuits: Pathways for current (series or parallel configurations).
Series Circuit: Single path for current; current is the same everywhere, voltage splits.
Parallel Circuit: Multiple paths for current; voltage is the same across each branch, current splits.
Magnetism: Force caused by moving electric charges; magnets have poles (north, south).
Electromagnetism: Relationship between electricity and magnetism; moving charges create magnetic fields, changing magnetic fields induce currents.
Electromagnetic Induction: Generating current by moving a conductor in a magnetic field (Faraday’s law).
Transformers: Devices that step up or step down AC voltages via electromagnetic induction.
Generators and Motors: Convert mechanical energy to electrical energy (generators) or electrical to mechanical (motors).
Atomic Models: Evolving ideas of atom structure (Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, quantum model).
Radioactivity: Unstable nuclei emit particles/energy (alpha, beta, gamma).
Nuclear Fission: Splitting heavy nuclei into lighter nuclei, releasing energy (nuclear reactors).
Nuclear Fusion: Combining light nuclei into heavier ones, releasing energy (stars, potential fusion power).
Relativity and Quantum Mechanics: Advanced theories (Einstein, Planck, Bohr, Schrödinger) describe high speeds, subatomic behavior, and the nature of space-time.

These 100 points outline the core concepts often presented in a high school physics curriculum, providing a broad foundation for understanding more advanced physics topics.

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